Agriculture in Ancient Peru

Agriculture was the innovation that allowed sedentarism and new forms of social organization in human history. In ancient Peru, agriculture was the primary means of development, allowing for the domestication of various crops that feed the country and the world. Despite the lack of suitable land, ancient Peruvians overcame adversities in gathering food (Kauffman). Andean agriculture was fundamental in the Inca and pre-Inca economies in South America. Thanks to this activity, pre-Inca people adapted, improved, and created new varieties of plants and seeds. Andean farmers were skilled at domesticating plants in the various microclimates of the surrounding region. This millennia-old experience has allowed for the evolution of today’s agriculture, resulting in traditional agriculture based on ancient knowledge and practices, industrial agriculture utilizing technology and innovative methods, and organic agriculture, which avoids synthetic fertilizers and pesticides to protect the environment. This transformation has positioned Peru as a world leader in providing healthy food and using good agricultural practices that are environmentally friendly. The ancient Peruvian farming practices, such as crop rotation, terrace construction, and advanced irrigation systems, have profoundly impacted modern agriculture. Modern farmers have adopted and adapted these practices, contributing to increased agricultural productivity and sustainability. Despite this transformation, Peru faces challenges that will allow it to become the world’s food pantry.

Agriculture in Ancient Peru

We can mention the Chavín, Moche, Chimú, Nazca, Paracas, and Huari cultures among the Pre-Inca cultures. Among the achievements of these cultures, increased agricultural productivity stands out, achieved by maximizing land use through the construction of terraces, crop rotation, a deeper understanding of the climate, the construction of advanced irrigation systems, and the use of animal-derived fertilizers (Leiner). This means that the ancient Peruvians not only had exceptional development in agriculture but also made their lands more productive through innovative practices such as terrace construction, rotating croplands, planting different crops throughout the year to achieve diversified production in other seasons, and building aqueducts or underground channels to achieve more efficient use of water from rivers, lakes, and underground reservoirs.

The ancient Peruvians effectively utilized environmental resources, learning about the best growth patterns in the ecological layers of the Andes Mountains and creating agricultural calendars to organize planting and harvesting seasons. For example, the Moche culture that developed in the Northern Coast of Peru (between 100-800 AD) consumed tubers such as potatoes, cereals like maize, and fruits such as custard apple, soursop, mamey sapote, chili pepper, and pumpkin (Alva). These crops were not only a source of food but also played a significant role in the cultural and economic life of the Moche people. Evidence can be seen in the ceramic vessels depicted in Figure 1, representing native potatoes. During their developmental phase, the Moche had access to various plants and agricultural knowledge. For example, they could benefit from the expansion of valleys through irrigation channels between 200-100 AD.

Figure 2. Colorful chili peppers

Larco Museum. Lima, Peru.

Another evidence of their agricultural legacy is the aqueducts. The Nazca aqueducts, depicted in Figure 3, known as “puquios” in Peru, represent an engineering feat for the ancient Nazca civilization. This sophisticated technique allowed the transportation of water from the mountains to arid and cultivable regions. Some of them are still in use today, highlighting the durability and efficiency of their construction (Pasini). This means that the ancient Nazca excelled in advanced hydraulic engineering, constructing an impressive network of aqueducts, channels, and wells that permanently supply water to farmlands. According to APU, a company dedicated to producing high-altitude artisanal wines, in their article “The Cantalloc Aqueducts: Inspiration from Gravity Flow,” the Nazca civilization built the Cantalloc aquifers using underground and surface channels. The underground channels were constructed with deep, stone-covered channels to prevent water loss through filtration.

On the other hand, surface channels were built on high barriers to provide gravity flow of water. These channels were designed to be angular to reduce evaporation, preserving water during dry periods. A notable feature of the Cantalloc aquifers is the spiral design of the ground, with stone towers at intervals along the channels. This design allowed water to flow in a circular pattern, preventing flooding during rainy periods. These principles are still applied in modern water management, particularly in irrigation systems (APU). This means that the Cantalloc Aqueducts testify to the ingenuity and skill of the Nazca civilization, which still influences modern water management projects. They utilize underground and elevated channels, narrow channels to reduce evaporation and regulate water flow to prevent flooding. Their spiral design has inspired modern innovations, such as the spiral water turbine. The Cantalloc Aqueducts are an excellent example of how ancient engineering can continue influencing and inspiring modern technology, demonstrating the lasting impact of ancient Peruvian agriculture on contemporary practices.

Figure 3. Cantalloc Aqueducts

Photo by: Véronique Debord

The Huari Culture, which developed between (450 – 1000 AD), was the Andenes’ inventors. These ancient inhabitants of the Andean region created the first additional cultivation terraces at the expense of the range’s mountains. The rivers of the Andes form steep valleys above 500 meters in the Cordillera, unlike the coastal area where irrigation allows cultivation on flat deserts. The ancient Peruvians attempted to acquire additional farmlands. They created the first Andenes, representing large-scale environmental transformation processes or their surroundings to manage climatic and geological risks and expand agricultural frontiers. The Andenes form energetic systems with irrigation, water storage, and access points. As the area increases and the terrain becomes more sophisticated, different types of Andenes and terrain help reduce soil erosion and improve water resource efficiency, increasing production possibilities in the Andes. The Incas later learned this technology and perfected it. The Andes were important agricultural arteries, providing products to the population for various farm purposes, such as planting seeds, preventing erosion, and mining mineral salt. They were the economic backbone of the Inca Empire, built with smaller stones connected to important ceremonial or administrative centers. They are considered valuable cultural heritage, and many follow the natural curve of the Andes, ensuring visual harmony with the environment. A sample of this work can be seen in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Terraces in the Inca’s Sacred Valley – Cuzco

According to journalist Cynthia Graber, in her article “Farming like the Inkas,” the Andes are some of the highest and steepest mountains in the world. The Incas and earlier civilizations harvested from the Andean slopes and intermittent watercourses developed resilient crops like potato, quinoa, and corn, built cisterns and canals, and gradually constructed terraces on the hillsides. By the end of the Inca civilization in the 19th century, the system covered about one million hectares and fed the vast empire (Graber). This means that the Incas and the cultures that preceded them could cultivate and harvest various crops for the sustenance of their empire, building terraces on the steepest slopes of the mountains.

Evolution of Agriculture in Peru

During the Inca period, agriculture primarily focused on fishing and trade, becoming the economy’s foundation. Society and culture considered the land a vital life source, leading to disputes and wars. The Incas called the land Pachamama, and they cultivated crops like coca, plantain, maca, guava, maguey, cotton, sweet potato, ulluco, quinoa, chili pepper, peanut, and potato for their nutritional qualities. One of the most famous cultivation techniques was terraces or cultivation terraces, where the Incas utilized mountain slopes to prevent soil erosion. The Colonial period was a time of agricultural transformation due to commercial exchange, the displacement of agriculture by mining, and European agriculture, which introduced and developed Western products for consumption and to support the colonial economy. The importance of coca is evident during this time. Despite legal provisions protecting indigenous property, the growth and strengthening of estates and ranches (17th century) took agricultural land and pastures from indigenous settlements and private indigenous individuals. Today, agriculture in Peru is a source of income for 30% of families and contributes 7.6% of the gross domestic product. The growth of agro-exportation has led to diversity in agriculture. Agricultural production in Peru covers 2.5 million hectares, with 80% of the farm output dedicated to transitory crops and the rest to fruit trees. Its main products include rice, hard yellow maize, potato, starchy maize, wheat, and barley grain. Agro-exports include coffee, fresh grapes, asparagus, fresh avocado, and quinoa (Magallanes).

According to the non-governmental organization Ayuda en Acción, agriculture in Peru has been one of the main economic activities, providing daily sustenance for 33 million Peruvians with the food produced. Peru has the region’s most incredible diversity of climates and soils and is recognized for its variety of agri-food products. However, there is a wide gap in its development and significant challenges to boost its growth. The evolution of agriculture in Peru dates back to 2500 BC and has evolved throughout the 1970s and 1980s, overcoming critical periods such as the Agrarian Reform and the 1983 El Niño Phenomenon. Since then, agricultural development has been sustained, even during the pandemic. This evolution throughout its history has generated three types of agriculture. Traditional agriculture, rooted in ancient knowledge and ancestral practices, mainly involves small family farmers in rural areas, focusing on self-consumption. More technologically advanced industrial agriculture allows for international expansion and market entry. Ecological, organic, or biological agriculture promotes responsible food consumption and respects the environment. Organic agriculture is carried out without using chemical products and is environmentally friendly. More than 107,000 producers are estimated to engage in this type of agricultural activity, with 94% associated with group operators to meet local and international requirements and certifications (Ayuda en Acción). This demonstrates that Peru’s agriculture has been an important economic activity for developing its economy, with 33 million people daily supplied with food. The country has many climates and soils and is known for its agri-food products. However, there is still a long way to go in its development.

Peru: A Sleeping Giant

According to CEN’s report “Peru: A Sleeping Green Giant,” Peru has enormous agricultural potential yet to be fully exploited. The country has distinguished itself by transforming arid landscapes into fertile lands, establishing itself as one of the undisputed leaders in the region’s agricultural industry. However, despite these significant advances, there is still a long way to go. Although the country has achieved essential milestones in agriculture and agro-exportation, Peru is on its way to becoming the world’s pantry. Our country is achieving global leadership positions in food provision. This ability is mainly due to the skill in converting areas that were once deserts into productive agricultural fields. However, more is needed; Peru has much more to offer its people and the global market. The key to unlocking this additional potential lies in mega-projects such as Chavimochic III, considered the largest irrigation project in the world, and Majes Siguas II. These projects promise to double the country’s agricultural production and, transform the Peruvian economy, and redefine its role in the global agricultural scope.

Agriculture has always been a fundamental pillar in the history and development of Peru. Since pre-Inca times, Andean civilizations demonstrated an extraordinary ability to cultivate in rugged terrain, developing advanced techniques such as mountain terraces. However, the most significant leap in Peruvian agriculture occurred in the last decades of the 20th century and the early 21st century, marking an era of transformation and modernization. The most notable advancement was the conversion of arid lands into fertile agricultural fields. Large-scale projects like Olmos and Chavimochic stages I and II have allowed the irrigation of over 100,000 hectares of arid lands, which has been crucial in this transformation. These projects expanded cultivable land and allowed crop diversification, including high-value crops in the international market, such as avocados, blueberries, and grapes. Nowadays, Peru is not only known for its traditional products like maize and potatoes but also as a major exporter of these new products. Agro-exportation has become a key driver, boosting growth and generating significant foreign exchange earnings. However, despite these successes, Peruvian agriculture faces substantial challenges. Dependence on climatic patterns, the need for more advanced technologies, and limitations in expanding cultivable lands remain persistent obstacles. This historical and current context lays the foundation for understanding the enormous untapped potential of the agricultural sector in Peru (CEN).

Conclusion

Therefore, ancient Peruvian agriculture, during the pre-Inca and Inca periods, experienced impressive development not only in utilizing inaccessible terrain with the construction of terraces, increasing productivity with crop rotation, but also in efficiently managing water with the construction of aqueducts or underground channels for irrigation, demonstrating extensive knowledge of their environment and the environment. However, during the colonial period, it was displaced by European agriculture and mining. Today, agriculture in Peru is a source of income for 30% of families and contributes 7.6% of the gross domestic product. The growth of agro-exportation has led to food diversity, with the main products being coffee, grapes, asparagus, blueberries, avocados, and quinoa. This millennia-old experience has allowed Peru to develop three types of agriculture:

While Peru has made significant advances in transforming arid lands into fertile lands and has become a leading player in the regional agricultural industry, Peru still faces challenges to becoming the world’s pantry. Despite its global leadership in food supply, Peru still needs to offer more to its people and the international market. Mega-projects like Chavimochic III and Majes Siguas II aim to double Peru’s agricultural production, transform the Peruvian economy, and redefine its role in the global agricultural arena.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Luis Henry Contreras Del Aguila
Food Industries Engineer Universidad Nacional Agraria de la Selva- Tingo Maria- Peru
Master in Agribusiness Administration ESAN University – Lima-Peru
Country Agribusiness CEO

 REFERENCES

APU. “The Cantalloc Aqueducts: Gravity Flow Inspiration”. www.apuwinery.com, April 8, 2023, https://www.apuwinery.com/post/the-cantalloc-aqueducts-gravity-flow-inspiration.

Ayuda en Acción. “Agricultura en el Peru: Origen y Tipos”. www. ayudaenaccion.org.pe, 07 Junio 2022, https://ayudaenaccion.org.pe/actualidad/agricultura-peru-origen-tipos/

Alva Ch, Jose Ismael. “La Agricultura Mochica: Los Alimentos y los Campesinos.” www.elbrujo.pe, https://www.elbrujo.pe/blog/la-agricultura-mochica-los-alimentos-y-los-campesinos

Graber, Cynthia. “Farming Like the Incas” www. smithsonianmag.com, September 6, 2011, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/farming-like-the-incas-70263

Kauffman. “La producción de los alimentos en el antiguo Perú y las adversidades a las que estaba expuesta”. www.conversacionsobrehistoria.info, https://conversacionsobrehistoria.info/2020/01/13/la-produccion-de-los-alimentos-en-el-antiguo-peru-y-las-adversidades-a-las-que-estaba-expuesta/

Museo Larco. “Frutos del Antiguo Peru”. www.museolarco.org, https://www.museolarco.org/galeria/frutos-del-antiguo-peru/.

Leiner. La Agricultura de las Culturas Pre-Incas. www.history-peru.blogspot.com, https://history-peru.blogspot.com/2014/11/la-agricultura-de-las-culturas-pre-incas.html.

Pasini, Alex. “The Nazca aqueducts”. www.linkedin.com, https://www.linkedin.com/posts/alexpassini_watertreatment-water-peru-activity-7135595950441463809-Pn0k/